Herbalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medicinal botany[1], medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, botanical medicine and phytotherapy. Sometimes the scope of herbal medicine is extended to include fungi and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts.
Many plants synthesize substances that are useful to the maintenance of health in humans and other animals. These include aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Many are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated — a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these substances (particularly the alkaloids) serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds. [2][3]
Role of herbal medicine in human society
People on all continents have used hundreds to thousands of indigenous plants for treatment of ailments since prehistoric times. There is evidence from the Shanidar Cave in Iraq that suggests Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago used medicinal plants. A body that was unearthed there had been buried with eight species of plants which are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world.[5]
The first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon-dated to between 13,000 - 25,000 BCE. Medicinal herbs were found in the personal effects of an "Ice man," whose body was frozen in the Swiss Alps for more than 5,300 years, which appear to have been used to treat the parasites found in his intestines.[6]
Anthropologists theorize that over time, and with insight, instinct, and trial-and-error, a base of knowledge would have been acquired within early tribal communities. As this knowledge base expanded over the generations, the specialized role of the herbalist emerged. The process would likely have occurred in varying manners within a wide diversity of cultures.
Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs they would normally reject. Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chimpanzees, chickens, sheep and butterflies. Lowland gorillas take 90% of their diet from the fruits of Aframomum melegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, that is a potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infections at bay.[7] Researchers from Ohio Wesleyan University found that some birds select nesting material rich in antimicrobial agents which protect their young from harmful bacteria[8]. Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in secondary metabolites, such as tannins and alkaloids. Since these phytochemicals often have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antihelminthic properties, a plausible case can be made for self-medication by animals in the wild.[7]
Some animals have digestive systems especially adapted to cope with certain plant toxins. For example, the koala can live on the leaves and shoots of the eucalyptus, a plant that is dangerous to most animals. A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for humans to ingest. A reasonable conjecture is that these discoveries were traditionally collected by the medicine people of indigenous tribes, who then passed on safety information and cautions.
The herbal medicine system, based on Greek and Roman sources
The Ayurvedic medicine system from India
Chinese herbal medicine (Chinese herbology)
Unani-Tibb medicine
Shamanic Herbalism
Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the world's population presently uses herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. Herbal medicine is a major component in all traditional medicine systems, and a common element in Ayurvedic, homeopathic, naturopathic, traditional Chinese medicine, and Native American medicine. According to the WHO, 74% of 119 modern plant-derived pharmaceutical medicines are used in ways that are similar to their traditional uses. Major pharmaceutical companies are currently conducting extensive research on plant materials gathered from the rainforests and other places for possible new pharmaceuticals.[9]
Three quarters of plants that provide active ingredients for prescription drugs came to the attention of researchers because of their use in traditional medicine.
Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 75 percent show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived.
More than two thirds of the world's plant species - at least 35,000 of which are estimated to have medicinal value - come from the developing countries.
At least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants[10]
Biological background
All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal metabolic activities. These can be split into primary metabolites, such as sugars and fats, found in all plants, and secondary metabolites found in a smaller range of plants, some useful ones found only in a particular genus or species.
The functions of secondary metabolites are varied. For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation, and others are pheremones used to attract insects for pollination. It is these secondary metabolites which can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs.
The word drug itself comes from the Swedish word "druug", which means 'dried plant'. Some examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove.
The active ingredient in Willow bark, once prescribed by Hippocrates, is salacin, or salicylic acid. The discovery of salicylic acid lead to the development of "aspirin", also known as "acetylsalicylic acid". "Aspirin" was originally a brand name, and is still a protected trademark in some countries. This medication was patented by Bayer AG.
Types of herbal medicine systems
Medicinal plants can be used by anyone, for example as part of a salad, an herbal tea or supplement, although the sale of some herbs considered dangerous is often restricted to the public. Sometimes such herbs are provided to professional herbalists by specialist companies. Many herbalists, both professional and amateur, often grow or "wildcraft" their own herbs. Many common weeds have medicinal properties (such as the dandelion, for example).
In Chinese medicine herbs (which may include animal and mineral parts) are divided into "Superior" (food grade), "Moderate" (to be taken for disease for a short time) and "Inferior" (toxic, short term) grades. Herbal formulas are based upon the organ system which is out of balance, with chief herbs addressing the main complaint, deputy herbs which reinforce the actions of the chief or address other affected organ systems, and servants which may harmonize, balance temperatures or tastes of the herbs, direct them to various parts of the body or assist penetration. Herbal formulas tend to have five to 15 herbs.
Eclectic medicine came out of the vitalist tradition, similar to physiomedicalism and bridged the European and Native American traditions. Cherokee medicine tends to divide herbs into foods, medicines and toxins and to use seven plants in the treatment of disease, which is defined with both spiritual and physiological aspects, according to Cherokee herbalist David Winston.[13]
Auyrvedic medicine has quite complex formulas with 30 or more ingredients, including a sizable number of ingredients that have undergone "alchemical processing", chosen to balance "Vata", "Pitta" or "Kapha."[14]
Herbal Administration
Main article: Herbal Administration
There are many forms in which herbs can be administered. The easiest way and one that still is frequent among indigenous healers is to chew on the plant. The roots of plants like echinacea, the fruit of lycium (goji) plants, the seeds of the emetic lobelia and the resins of myrrh have all been injested directly. On the other extreme is standardization which may boost certain constituents at the expense of others.
Examples of herbal medicine
Artichoke and several other plants may reduce total serum cholesterol levels in preliminary studies. [17]
Black cohosh and other plants that contain phytoestrogens (plant molecules with estrogen activity) have some benefits for treatment of symptoms resulting from menopause.[citation needed]
Echinacea extracts can limit the length and severity of rhinovirus colds; however, the appropriate dosage levels, which might be higher than is available over-the-counter, require further research. [18][19]
Garlic can lower total cholesterol levels[20]
Purified extracts of the seeds of Hibiscus sabdariffa may have some anti-microbial effect, but may also have some toxicity to mammalian testes.[21]
Nigella sativa (Black cumin) is a general medicinal plant can be used for diverse ailments such as cough, pulmonary infections, asthma, influenza, allergy, hypertension and stomach ache. [22][23][24][citation needed]
Pawpaw can be used for insecticidal purposes (killing lice, worms).[citation needed]
Phytolacca or Pokeweed is used as a homeopathic remedy to treat many ailments. It can be applied topically or taken internally. Topical treatments have been used for acne and other ailments. Internal treatments include tonsilitis, swollen glands and weight loss.[citation needed]
Peppermint oil may have benefits for individuals with irritable bowel syndrome.[25][citation needed]
Rauvolfia Serpentina, used extensively in India for sleeplessness, anxiety, and high blood pressure. The first proven allopathic medicine for high blood pressure was extracted from this herb.[citation needed]
St. John's wort, has yielded positive results, proving more effective than a placebo for the treatment of mild to moderate depression in some clinical trials: however, safety and efficacy profiles (that is, amount of drug needed for a clinical effect) have not been shown.[26]
Valerian root can be used to treat insomnia.[citation needed]
Feverfew can be used to treat migraine headaches.[27]However, many reviews of these studies show no efficacy [28] and dangerous side effects.[29][30]
Saw Palmetto can be used for BPH. Supported in some studies [31], failed to confirm in otherrs. [32][citation needed]
Lemon juice or apple cider vinegar can be used to treat acne.[citation needed]
Green tea components may inhibit growth of breast cancer cells[33] and may heal scars faster. [34][citation needed]
Lemon grass can lower cholesterol.[citation needed]
Honey may reduce cholesterol.[35][citation needed]
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